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Q = ∫h A (T1 - T2) dt
Heat is energy transfer driven by temperature differences. It flows from hot to cold. Sign Convention Positive (+Q). Heat rejected by system: Negative (-Q). Modes of Heat Transfer Conduction: Molecular collision in solid bodies. Convection: Fluid motion over solid surfaces. Radiation: Electromagnetic waves through empty space. Key Differences: Work vs. Heat Characteristic Driving Force Pressure, Force, Voltage Temperature Gradient Direction High to low organized energy High to low temperature Entropy Effect Does not transfer entropy Transfers entropy Energy Quality High-grade energy Low-grade energy The First Law of Thermodynamics engineering thermodynamics work and heat transfer pdf
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